The Invention of Nature. Alexander von Humboldt’s New. World
by Andrea Wulf (Vintage.2015)
The book follows a chronological pattern, beginning with Humboldt's childhood; but it swiftly progresses to his first journey to South America. Readers looking for action, who want to get right to what started to make Humboldt so amazing, will not be disappointed with this relatively quick glance at his early years in Germany. The book is also loaded with grayscale images corresponding to Humboldt's travels, making pleasing breaks from pages and pages of text. My only complaint on this front is that the captions do not generally make it clear whether these images are contemporary.
One of the best features, I think, is the relatively objective quality of Wulf's narration. Two examples here on this: First, these early scientists often gleefully experimented on animals, and Humboldt was definitely no exception. But we get no PETA-like frowns from Wulf -- she only relays what Humboldt was, in fact, doing, and how *he* felt about it. Second, there are certain details about Humboldt's life that point towards his being either asexual or homosexual. Wulf provides these details not only with Humboldt's own remarks (towards his male scientific partners and friends in letters, for example), but also through others' contemporary observations about his character. Yet pleasingly, she does not really insinuate that he was anything at all; she does not say he was "probably" this or that. Instead, Wulf allows readers to make their own judgments if they should wish. (i.e. Maybe he was in love with his work?) This relative objectivity is a mark of good, or even great biography that will outlast decades -- all the clues, but not really any overt -- and importantly, unprovable -- interpretations.
On first reading, I made the mistake of taking Wulf's book primarily as a biography of Alexander von Humbolt: It is that (and a good one), but foremost it is an argument for a new understanding of nature. I should have paid more attention to the first part of the book's title: "The Invention of Nature" Alexander von Humbolt's New World. Ms. Wulf is making the case that a proper understanding (not simply appreciation) of nature includes, perhaps requires, a passionate enthusiasm for nature, as well. She shows Humbolt as the embodiment of that new understanding -- romantic and poetic, as well as scientific. She then traces his influence in subsequent scientists, including Darwin, but even more in Thoreau, Marsh, Haeckel and Muir --- partly in their science, but particularly in their embrace of his enthusiasm. There is an inevitable tension between writing a personal biography and analyzing the intellectual/cultural history of an idea, i.e., a new "invention" or way of thinking about nature. On the whole, Wulf succeeds on both counts, and her book is both a pleasure to read and a genuine contribution to our history of thinking about nature. But the tension in her purposes does require some concessions.
Wulf deserves applause for her effort to restore Humbolt to his rightful place "in the pantheon of nature and science." The man was nothing short of remarkable and recognized as such in his time. It is unfortunate, and curious, that his fame has been largely eclipsed in the last century. Partly, this is a matter of accessibility: Not only was he remarkably prolific, but much of the work is simply unavailable to English-language readers. Some recent popular books have helped, e.g., Gerhard Helferich's 2011 "Humbolt's Cosmos," but much is either narrowly focused, outdated or unavailable outside research libraries. Wulf's remedy is the best contemporary biography of Humbolt, and that alone would make this book worth reading. Her particular service, however, is in providing an excellent summary of his principle ideas and new way of thinking about nature. From this foundation, she proceeds to make a strong case for his influence on subsequent generations of scientists and nature writers. Because Wulf is focused on Humbolt as the progenitor of a new ("invented") way of thinking about nature, a more comprehensive, and perhaps more complex, examination of the man gives way to the theme of influence on successors. This is not a defect in the book: It is a choice by the author to focus on the theme of a more subjective and impassioned understanding of nature, as embodied by Humbolt and then his successors. But it does mean that a more purely biographical "life" of Humbolt remains to be written.
Wulf's shifting focus from the man to the theme creates some tension. At times, Wulf works so hard at restoring a deserved luster to Humbolt and his ideas that she may go too far. One might get the impression not only that all his ideas were original, but that much (if not most) of subsequent nature science was derivative of Humbolt, from Darwin's thinking on evolution to contemporary climate science. Indeed, many of Humbolt's astute observations can find an echo is contemporary nature science. But many of his ideas regarding geology, species and the complex interaction in nature were "in the air" and under discussion at the time. In addition to some genuinely original concepts (e.g., climate bands or zones), Humbolt's great contribution was to focus and lend excitement to this new thinking. No small thing that! Moreover, Humbolt certainly was an inspiration to many subsequent (but equally original) scientists -- my own first inklings of Humbolt's influence came from reading Darwin's account of being inspired by Humbolt's South American explorations. In short, Humbolt not only made major substantive contributions to science, but his remarkable travels and passion for nature inspired many then and since. But how much contemporary science derives from his work, and why his contribution is nowadays less appreciated, is a larger and still open question.
This points to an additional caveat: In making the case not only for Humbolt's historical influence but contemporary relevance, Wulf sometimes leaves the impression that we are listening to her pronounce on contemporary issues, e.g., climate change, in Humbolt's voice. As noted, Wulf is making an unapologetic case for a subjective understanding and appreciation of nature. When Wulf relates the tale of an occasion when John Muir "jumping around and singing to 'glory in it all" derides a hiking companion for evidently too "cool" an appreciation of nature, she leaves no doubt where her sympathies lie. Fair enough, so long as one recognizes that this stance occasionally colors her treatment of Humbolt, as well as his successors. Since I suspect that most prospective readers are (like me) inclined to sympathize, this is unlikely to be a problem for most.
A final, non-trivial recommendation: In addition to being strong on substance, Wulf writes a very nice and expressive style, highly readable and nearly always interesting. This is a needed and well-done biography. As to Wulf's broader argument about the legitimacy and importance of including subjectivity and passion in our scientific understanding of nature, she makes a strong case and (needless to say) makes it passionately.
fathers of modern environmentalism. It would not be off the mark to say that he paved the way for Darwin and natural selection. He was born in Prussia in 1769, when Europe was starting to crackle with reform and intellectual ferment. Humboldt inherited a large sum of money from a strict, authoritarian mother who wanted him to enter the law and civil service. But Humboldt was smitten by nature and exploration from a very young age and wanted nothing more than to travel to the far, wild reaches of the planet. His brother Wilhelm on the other hand took to law and diplomacy like a fish and held a succession of important ambassadorial posts in France and Italy; throughout their lives the brothers along with Wilhelm’s wife Caroline were to be close, in spite of their occasional disagreements. In his young days Humboldt’s scientific temper was molded by a short career as a mining inspector. This career gave him a chance to travel throughout Europe and appreciate some of the finer details of geology and the chemistry of minerals.
Humboldt's early intellect was shaped in part by his own burning curiosity for reading and nature and in part by a formative friendship with Goethe; the two often visited each other and spent long evenings debating everything from science to poetry. Until Humboldt met Goethe he was a strict rationalist, but Goethe taught him that a true appreciation of nature comes when its scientific study is infused with a sense of wonder and feeling about its workings. The heady mix of Romanticism and Enlightenment thinking that pervaded Humboldt’s discussions with Goethe primed Humboldt for a novel appreciation of nature.
Armed with these twin pillars of natural philosophy, Humboldt set off in 1799 on what would turn out to be the most important trip of his career. He decided to traverse as much of South America and especially Venezuela as he could. His goal, just like Darwin's twenty-five years later, was to study the native flora and fauna, including the mighty river systems of the South and the indigenous tribes. Humboldt was accompanied by a French botanist named Aime Bonpland who shared his enthusiasm for adventure and science. And what adventures they had. They climbed mountains in freezing weather and hailstorms, navigated rivers and forests filled with dangerous snakes, crocodiles, scorpions and spiders and came face to face with ferocious tribes who had never seen a European before. The duo’s hardiness – some would call it foolhardiness – in the face of extreme weather and dangerous conditions alternately evokes a sense of bravery and stupidity. The most vivid experience they had which really stood out for me was when they trotted in horses in a pool filled with electric eels so that the dangerous creatures would be roiled up to the surface by the horses’ hooves, ready for capture and study.
Humboldt’s South American adventures took five years and planted seeds for two key ideas which laid the foundations for similar thinking by many of the world’s most important scientists, humanists and writers. Traversing diverse environments like mountains, rivers, oceans and rain forests, Humboldt was struck by the similarity in flora and fauna that he observed; many of the plant species at higher altitudes for instance were similar to ones he had seen in Europe. At the same time he also observed how crucial the dependence of life in these environments was on climatic conditions. These observations led Humboldt to conceive of life as a seamless whole whose parts are critically dependent on each other; perturb one part and you risk perturbing the whole. Without giving it a name Humboldt had discovered the biosphere. This was a profound insight in an age when the environment was considered as a limitless resource that was ripe for man’s taking. The sensitive dependence of various parts of life on each other was a novel idea at the time, and it became the precursor for much thinking on ecology, biology and climate change that we take for granted; it underlies for instance James Lovelock’s idea of Gaia, of seeing the earth as a living and breathing organism with interdependent parts.
Humboldt also acquired a lifelong disdain for colonialism and slavery during his American sojourn. By the time he arrived in Venezuela the Spanish had already established a sizable stronghold in much of the continent. Humboldt was struck by the plight of both the natives and the lowly status of the Spaniards who were born in the exploited countries. He also appreciated the wealth of knowledge that infused the way of life of the indigenous tribes and their ancient civilization; a way of life that was slowly being eroded by the Conquistadors. Humboldt got a further opportunity to shape his thinking on these issues when he made his way to Philadelphia and Washington DC in his way back home. His goal was to meet Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson had already heard of Humboldt’s observations, and he thought Humboldt’s notes on South America and Mexico would be especially helpful to him as the United States sought to expand its territories in the South and the West. The two men struck up a warm, cordial relationship. The president and the scientist-explorer had much in common; they were both polymaths and leading intellects whose thinking was permeated by an appreciation of nature and exploration. Humboldt stayed at Monticello and admired Jefferson’s experiments in agriculture and architecture. He also found much to admire in the forward-looking and spirited Americans. But he also openly criticized slavery in the United States and made the obvious observation that the founding ideals of the country were in stark contrast to its exploitation of other human beings. These discussions made Jefferson uneasy but it did not affect the intellectual relationship that the two men enjoyed.
Humboldt arrived back in Paris to thousands of spectators; stories of his adventures and his vivid writings had already made him famous. Paris with its museums and intellectuals was the place to be, and Humboldt developed friendships with several leading French scientists including the chemist Gay-Lussac and the paleontologist Georges Cuvier. But he also watched with dismay as, after what seemed to be a bloody but successful people’s revolution, Napoleon turned France into an empire-building state and semi-dictatorship. At the same time Napoleon did have some appreciation of science, so Humboldt could still work relatively unfettered in France. Humboldt’s most interesting friendship in France was with the South American revolutionary Simon Bolivar who was spending a short period in the world’s cultural capital after the death of his young wife, immersing himself in wine, women and song to recover from the grief. After meeting Humboldt, Bolivar had a renewed sense of urgency regarding the freedom of South Americans from the Spanish, and when he returned he started his incredibly resilient and successful campaigns for Latin American independence.
While Humboldt thrived in France and wrote bestselling books on South America’s flora and fauna, his restless mind could not stop thinking of other places to explore. He set his sights on India and the Himalayas, and his determined sadly unsuccessful search is one of the great what-could-have-beens of the times. The culprit was the East India Company which had established a stronghold in India and whose express permission was needed to travel to the country. When Humboldt visited London – mobbed by famous scientists and crowds as usual – he tried to pull all the scientific and diplomatic strings which he could to secure passage to India. But the thorn in the East India Company’s side was his vocal criticism of colonialism, of which India was Britain’s self-proclaimed “jewel in the crown”; the Company would never agree to let this upstart intellectual who threatened to create a publicity nightmare for them enter India. Humboldt continued to try to get to India for the rest of his life, and one can only wonder what kind of perspicacious observations he would have unearthed had he been able to make the trip.
If not India, Humboldt’s next choice was Russia which was still under the yoke of the Tsars. By this time Humboldt’s inheritance was gone and he was being funded by a stipend from the German King; it was a stipend that Humboldt grumbled about since it often involved accompanying the king on menial trips and small talk with court ministers. Humboldt was therefore gratified to secure funds from the Russian monarch. He was then 59 but still in his element. Accompanied by a few assistants and fellow scientists, Humboldt covered almost 10,000 miles in less than a month. The journey was again dangerous, and at one point involved barreling through a region stricken with an epidemic of anthrax. The official mandate of the trip was a mining exploration, but Humboldt often violated this mandate and strayed several thousand miles off the chosen route to perform his own experiments on the native flora and fauna. The result was again a view of the unity of life spread across diverse geographical and biological environments.
Humboldt finally came home to Berlin after what turned out to be his last international trip. But his restless spirit was not done yet. He spent the next thirty years corresponding with leading lights like Darwin, Jefferson and Louis Agassiz. The crowning achievement of those years was a vast, multivolume, audaciously ambitious compendium of earth’s biosphere and the universe called “Cosmos”. Predating Carl Sagan’s Cosmos by a hundred and fifty years, Humboldt’s “Cosmos” sought to put all physical and biological phenomena on the same footing. Here was Humboldt the polymath at his best. In Cosmos Humboldt put together everything he knew about geology, anatomy, geography, paleontology, ecology and humanity to create a unified view of life. The volumes were lavishly illustrated with Humboldt’s own drawings as well as those from scores of correspondents. They were works not just of science but of literature, stamped with the influence of Goethe and the age of Romanticism. The volume of letters that Humboldt received from both scientists and fans during this time reached into the thousands. “Cosmos” was Humboldt’s last great work, and he died in 1859 at the ripe age of eighty-nine years, in his last years becoming one of the most famous people in the world. He was feted in all the world’s major capitals, and celebrations of his life lasted many days and drew crowds of thousands.
The last part of the book charts the influence of this remarkable intellect on some of the best-known and most influential naturalists and writers of the nineteenth and twentieth century. Darwin found commonalities in his own observations of similarities among species and Humboldt’s work in Venezuela. Humboldt also had a great influence on Henry David Thoreau who took inspiration from Humboldt’s sensitive appreciation of nature in writing his famous ‘Walden’; Thoreau’s words exemplify the kind of poetry that Humboldt learnt from Goethe. The American naturalist George Perkins Marsh was also quite taken by Humboldt’s observations on the destructive influence of human activity on the environment, and especially on deforestation. Marsh’s “Man and Nature” anticipated Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring”; Marsh today is regarded as America’s first serious environmentalist. Finally, John Muir whose wanderlust took him on foot from his home in Indiana to first Florida and then to Yosemite became America’s foremost influence on the founding of its national parks. Muir, Thoreau and Marsh all had heavily marked copies of Humboldt’s works on their shelves, and all extensively referenced Humboldt in their writings.
What all of these naturalists and a horde of other successive writers gained from Humboldt was an appreciation of the unity of life, the seamless interdependence of its various parts on each other, and its great fragility and sensitivity to human intervention. As we debate climate change and greenhouse gas emissions, as we discuss nature’s depiction in art and poetry, as we pick up a snowflake and wonder at its multifaceted aspects of geometry and beauty, we are all walking in Alexander von Humboldt’s shoes.
Andrea Wulf’s biography of Alexander von Humboldt is a beautifully written work that restores our awareness of a life that paradoxically seems largely forgotten and yet is somehow familiar once this wonderful book is read. And to classify this work as a biography is not totally accurate in that it is a biography, a history of science, and a commentary on the interconnectivity of life from the viewpoint of both aesthetics and science. As well, it documents how von Humboldt influenced a number of other individuals who are now famous and better known to us.
Wulf gives us great detail of the life of the fascinating man Alexander von Humboldt. She conveys an insight into how his early life molded him into a frenetic, driven scholar with a lifelong thirst for both knowledge and adventure. Perhaps more commonplace in the late 18th century than today, he became vitally interested in what would become later known as “scientific specialties” such as geology and botany as well as in aesthetics. His early self-concept led to his first and most monumental journey, along with the botanist Aime Bonpland, across the northern reaches of South America lasting 5 years and led to his view of nature as an interconnected force, a view that would shape the remainder of his long life. While his insights now resonate with us, this book makes clear that his comprehensive understanding of nature was totally new at the time and that the reason it is now familiar to us was his tremendous influence on others to follow.
Wulf brings into clear view the strong friendship between the youthful von Humboldt and the poet Johann von Goethe and how each influenced the other. Von Humboldt developed an appreciation of the artistic side of life through Goethe while Goethe developed a fascination with science through von Humboldt that influenced the writing of his Foust. Later in life, both because of his own fame and through his brother (a foreign minister of Prussia), von Humboldt would meet many other famous people, with wonderful vignettes developed by Wulf. One such acquaintance was Simon Bolivar, whom he met in Rome well after his own travels in South America. Bolivar, born in Spanish Venezuela, would seem to have been inspired by von Humboldt’s poetic vision of South American landscapes and would return to his native land as liberator and later, sadly, as a dictator. Even during his long years of brutal warfare he was said to have maintained a strong interest in nature that had been inspired by von Humboldt.
Von Humboldt’s view of colonial South America went far beyond the aesthetic appreciation of the landscapes and of the amazing scientific discoveries. He spoke out against the evils of colonialism, and slavery. He also noted how deforestation adversely affected the water table, animal populations, the atmosphere and much more. For this he became known as the founder of environmentalism.
Von Humboldt’s scientific studies in Europe, South America and later the Asiatic part of Russia are well chronicled and led him to develop his view on how all of life is interconnected and part of one vital force. For instance, he invented the concept of atmospheric isotherms, showing how landmasses and oceans affect weather patterns, developing the field of meteorology. Late in life he wrote the five-volume work he called Cosmos. Based on his life’s work, the word “ecology” was invented.
In the latter portion of this work, Wulf speaks of several of the more famous people heavily influenced by von Humboldt. While some might feel that this turns a wonderful biography into an unnecessarily long book, I feel this adds a most worthwhile dimension to her work. And just as von Humboldt himself saw the interconnections across all of nature, in similar fashion Wulf brings out the interconnections between the life and writings of von Humboldt and those individuals influenced by him who have so greatly influenced and even shaped our modern views of science and nature.
I only became aware of The Invention of Nature through a review published in the Wall Street Journal that focused on the landscape painter Frederic Edwin Church and his painting called “In the Heart of the Andes”. Church had been motivated by von Humboldt to appreciate both the emotional impact on us from nature and its scientific aspects. He trekked through some of the regions of South America previously covered by von Humboldt and Bonpland and painted this landscape that was so detailed that botanists could discern the name of each plant and tree on the canvas. It was first displayed in 1859 just weeks before von Humboldt’s death. This review led me to read the Invention of Nature.
Wulf goes on to describe the massive influence by von Humboldt on so many others. Charles Darwin had a copy of von Humboldt’s Personal Narrative with him during the voyage of the HMS Beagle and would later refer to von Humboldt in his own writings. Henry David Thoreau read Personal Narrative, Views of Nature and Cosmos and mentioned von Humboldt often in his journals. He narrowed his own view of nature to that of Walden Pond but tried to make it as comprehensive and interconnected as that of von Humboldt’s cosmos. George Perkins Marsh read all of the major writings of von Humboldt and was very motivated by him, becoming the prototypical conservationist and writer of Man and Nature. Ernst Haeckel was a German physician, artist and zoologist who was enthralled with von Humboldt. He studied microscopic marine life and then developed them into amazing works of art that led to the Art Nouveau movement and monism. And finally John Muir was deeply influenced by von Humboldt. He owned and heavily studied all of von Humboldt’s major books and extended von Humboldt’s thoughts on the spiritual connections seen within nature. Beyond the conservationism of Marsh, Muir advocated for protection of our environment and of course founded the Sierra Club and contributed to the development of our National Parks system. All of this is brought out in fascinating detail in the latter portions of Wulf’s book.
In conclusion, The Invention of Nature is a description not only of a remarkable life but also of how we have come to think of environment, ecology, and nature itself. From it, I feel, we can be inspired to appreciate the nature that surrounds us from small to great, to widen our own views in a way that can bring a revitalization to ourselves and to cause us to advocate for the environment. I believe Alexander von Humboldt would be extremely proud of The Invention of Nature.
